Morbidity and mortality in premature or low birth weight patients with congenital heart disease in three European pediatric heart centers between 2016 and 2020.

Background: The treatment of preterm and low birth weight (LBW) neonates born with congenital heart disease (CHD) requiring early cardiac intervention remains challenging. We aimed to analyze morbidity and mortality in this combined high-risk patient group. Methods: A retrospective cohort study was conducted of preterm [<37 weeks gestational age (GA)] and/or LBW neonates (<2,500 g) born with a diagnosis of CHD, which requires invasive cardiac intervention (surgery or catheter) within their first year of life. Patients born between 2016 and 2020 and treated in three European pediatric heart centers were included. Results: A total of 308 neonates (51% male) with CHD were included. Of those, 237 (77%) were born preterm, 259 (84%) were LBW, and 188 (61%) were both. The median GA was 35.4 weeks (interquartile range 33.3-36.9) and the mean birth weight was 2,016 ± 580 g. CHD was categorized as simple (12%), moderate (64%), or severe (24%). The overall complication rate was 45% and was highest in patients with severe CHD (p = 0.002). One-year mortality (19%) was associated with severe CHD, low relative birth weight in patients with genetic diagnoses, and low GA at birth, whereas GA at birth significantly impacted survival only after 3 months of life. Conclusions: The high morbidity and mortality in preterm and LBW neonates with CHD reflect their complexity and consequent limited treatment feasibility.

A Strategy for Artificial Intelligence With Clinical Impact-Eyes on the Prize.

This Viewpoint describes a strategy for addressing major challenges in artificial intelligence in pediatrics to maximize clinical impact.

Perioperative Brain Injury in Relation to Early Neurodevelopment Among Children with Severe Congenital Heart Disease: Results from a European Collaboration.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the relationship between perioperative brain injury and neurodevelopment during early childhood in patients with severe congenital heart disease (CHD). STUDY DESIGN: One hundred and seventy children with CHD and born at term who required cardiopulmonary bypass surgery in the first 6 weeks after birth were recruited from 3 European centers and underwent preoperative and postoperative brain MRIs. Uniform description of imaging findings was performed and an overall brain injury score was created, based on the sum of the worst preoperative or postoperative brain injury subscores. Motor and cognitive outcomes were assessed with the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development Third Edition at 12 to 30 months of age. The relationship between brain injury score and clinical outcome was assessed using multiple linear regression analysis, adjusting for CHD severity, length of hospital stay (LOS), socioeconomic status (SES), and age at follow-up. RESULTS: Neither the overall brain injury score nor any of the brain injury subscores correlated with motor or cognitive outcome. The number of preoperative white matter lesions was significantly associated with gross motor outcome after correction for multiple testing (P = .013, ß = -0.50). SES was independently associated with cognitive outcome (P < .001, ß = 0.26), and LOS with motor outcome (P < .001, ß = -0.35). CONCLUSION: Preoperative white matter lesions appear to be the most predictive MRI marker for adverse early childhood gross motor outcome in this large European cohort of infants with severe CHD. LOS as a marker of disease severity, and SES influence outcome and future intervention trials need to address these risk factors.

Ultra-Wideband Radar for Simultaneous and Unobtrusive Monitoring of Respiratory and Heart Rates in Early Childhood: A Deep Transfer Learning Approach.

Unobtrusive monitoring of children's heart rate (HR) and respiratory rate (RR) can be valuable for promoting the early detection of potential health issues, improving communication with healthcare providers and reducing unnecessary hospital visits. A promising solution for wireless vital sign monitoring is radar technology. This paper presents a novel approach for the simultaneous estimation of children's RR and HR utilizing ultra-wideband (UWB) radar using a deep transfer learning algorithm in a cohort of 55 children. The HR and RR are calculated by processing radar signals via spectrogram from time epochs of 10 s (25 sample length of hamming window with 90% overlap) and then transforming the resultant representation into 2-dimensional images. These images were fed into a pre-trained Visual Geometry Group-16 (VGG-16) model (trained on ImageNet dataset), with weights of five added layers fine-tuned using the proposed data. The prediction on the test data achieved a mean absolute error (MAE) of 7.3 beats per minute (BPM < 6.5% of average HR) and 2.63 breaths per minute (BPM < 7% of average RR). We also achieved a significant Pearson's correlation of 77% and 81% between true and extracted for HR and RR, respectively. HR and RR samples are extracted every 10 s.

Prognostic factors for multi-organ dysfunction in pediatric oncology patients admitted to the pediatric intensive care unit.

Background: Pediatric oncology patients who require admission to the pediatric intensive care unit (PICU) have worse outcomes compared to their non-cancer peers. Although multi-organ dysfunction (MOD) plays a pivotal role in PICU mortality and morbidity, risk factors for MOD have not yet been identified. We aimed to identify risk factors at PICU admission for new or progressive MOD (NPMOD) during the first week of PICU stay. Methods: This retrospective cohort study included all pediatric oncology patients aged 0 to 18 years admitted to the PICU between June 2018 and June 2021. We used the recently published PODIUM criteria for defining multi-organ dysfunction and estimated the association between covariates at PICU baseline and the outcome NPMOD using a multivariable logistic regression model, with PICU admission as unit of study. To study the predictive performance, the model was internally validated by using bootstrap. Results: A total of 761 PICU admissions of 571 patients were included. NPMOD was present in 154 PICU admissions (20%). Patients with NPMOD had a high mortality compared to patients without NPMOD, 14% and 1.0% respectively. Hemato-oncological diagnosis, number of failing organs and unplanned admission were independent risk factors for NPMOD. The prognostic model had an overall good discrimination and calibration. Conclusion: The risk factors at PICU admission for NPMOD may help to identify patients who may benefit from closer monitoring and early interventions. When applying the PODIUM criteria, we found some opportunities for fine-tuning these criteria for pediatric oncology patients, that need to be validated in future studies.

Continuous Data-Driven Monitoring in Critical Congenital Heart Disease: Clinical Deterioration Model Development.

BACKGROUND: Critical congenital heart disease (cCHD)-requiring cardiac intervention in the first year of life for survival-occurs globally in 2-3 of every 1000 live births. In the critical perioperative period, intensive multimodal monitoring at a pediatric intensive care unit (PICU) is warranted, as their organs-especially the brain-may be severely injured due to hemodynamic and respiratory events. These 24/7 clinical data streams yield large quantities of high-frequency data, which are challenging in terms of interpretation due to the varying and dynamic physiology innate to cCHD. Through advanced data science algorithms, these dynamic data can be condensed into comprehensible information, reducing the cognitive load on the medical team and providing data-driven monitoring support through automated detection of clinical deterioration, which may facilitate timely intervention. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to develop a clinical deterioration detection algorithm for PICU patients with cCHD. METHODS: Retrospectively, synchronous per-second data of cerebral regional oxygen saturation (rSO2) and 4 vital parameters (respiratory rate, heart rate, oxygen saturation, and invasive mean blood pressure) in neonates with cCHD admitted to the University Medical Center Utrecht, the Netherlands, between 2002 and 2018 were extracted. Patients were stratified based on mean oxygen saturation during admission to account for physiological differences between acyanotic and cyanotic cCHD. Each subset was used to train our algorithm in classifying data as either stable, unstable, or sensor dysfunction. The algorithm was designed to detect combinations of parameters abnormal to the stratified subpopulation and significant deviations from the patient's unique baseline, which were further analyzed to distinguish clinical improvement from deterioration. Novel data were used for testing, visualized in detail, and internally validated by pediatric intensivists. RESULTS: A retrospective query yielded 4600 hours and 209 hours of per-second data in 78 and 10 neonates for, respectively, training and testing purposes. During testing, stable episodes occurred 153 times, of which 134 (88%) were correctly detected. Unstable episodes were correctly noted in 46 of 57 (81%) observed episodes. Twelve expert-confirmed unstable episodes were missed in testing. Time-percentual accuracy was 93% and 77% for, respectively, stable and unstable episodes. A total of 138 sensorial dysfunctions were detected, of which 130 (94%) were correct. CONCLUSIONS: In this proof-of-concept study, a clinical deterioration detection algorithm was developed and retrospectively evaluated to classify clinical stability and instability, achieving reasonable performance considering the heterogeneous population of neonates with cCHD. Combined analysis of baseline (ie, patient-specific) deviations and simultaneous parameter-shifting (ie, population-specific) proofs would be promising with respect to enhancing applicability to heterogeneous critically ill pediatric populations. After prospective validation, the current-and comparable-models may, in the future, be used in the automated detection of clinical deterioration and eventually provide data-driven monitoring support to the medical team, allowing for timely intervention.

Risk Factors for Perioperative Brain Lesions in Infants With Congenital Heart Disease: A European Collaboration.

BACKGROUND: Infants with congenital heart disease are at risk of brain injury and impaired neurodevelopment. The aim was to investigate risk factors for perioperative brain lesions in infants with congenital heart disease. METHODS: Infants with transposition of the great arteries, single ventricle physiology, and left ventricular outflow tract and/or aortic arch obstruction undergoing cardiac surgery <6 weeks after birth from 3 European cohorts (Utrecht, Zurich, and London) were combined. Brain lesions were scored on preoperative (transposition of the great arteries N=104; single ventricle physiology N=35; and left ventricular outflow tract and/or aortic arch obstruction N=41) and postoperative (transposition of the great arteries N=88; single ventricle physiology N=28; and left ventricular outflow tract and/or aortic arch obstruction N=30) magnetic resonance imaging for risk factor analysis of arterial ischemic stroke, cerebral sinus venous thrombosis, and white matter injury. RESULTS: Preoperatively, induced vaginal delivery (odds ratio [OR], 2.23 [95% CI, 1.06-4.70]) was associated with white matter injury and balloon atrial septostomy increased the risk of white matter injury (OR, 2.51 [95% CI, 1.23-5.20]) and arterial ischemic stroke (OR, 4.49 [95% CI, 1.20-21.49]). Postoperatively, younger postnatal age at surgery (OR, 1.18 [95% CI, 1.05-1.33]) and selective cerebral perfusion, particularly at ≤20 °C (OR, 13.46 [95% CI, 3.58-67.10]), were associated with new arterial ischemic stroke. Single ventricle physiology was associated with new white matter injury (OR, 2.88 [95% CI, 1.20-6.95]) and transposition of the great arteries with new cerebral sinus venous thrombosis (OR, 13.47 [95% CI, 2.28-95.66]). Delayed sternal closure (OR, 3.47 [95% CI, 1.08-13.06]) and lower intraoperative temperatures (OR, 1.22 [95% CI, 1.07-1.36]) also increased the risk of new cerebral sinus venous thrombosis. CONCLUSIONS: Delivery planning and surgery timing may be modifiable risk factors that allow personalized treatment to minimize the risk of perioperative brain injury in severe congenital heart disease. Further research is needed to optimize cerebral perfusion techniques for neonatal surgery and to confirm the relationship between cerebral sinus venous thrombosis and perioperative risk factors.

Early Determinants of Adverse Motor Outcomes in Preschool Children with a Critical Congenital Heart Defect.

Neurodevelopmental disabilities are common in infants with critical congenital heart disease (CCHD). A prospective, longitudinal cohort study was conducted to establish the prevalence and early determinants of adverse motor outcomes in infants who underwent cardiac surgery with cardiopulmonary bypass before six months of age. Motor development was assessed in 147 preschoolers using the Movement Assessment Battery for children-II. Although the majority displayed an average motor development, 22% of preschool children with CCHD deteriorated in their motor developmental score compared to their previous assessment at 18 months, especially in those with an aortic arch anomaly (AAA) (35%). Individual stability over time appeared to be moderate and the number of children with a motor delay increased, up to 20% in children with AAA. Motor development up to 42 months was best predicted by gestational age, cardio pulmonary bypass time, aortic cross clamp time, number of heart catheterizations up to 18 months and early motor outcomes. The increase in number of preschool children with a motor delay underlines the importance of longitudinal screening of motor skills in children with CCHD at risk for adverse motor outcomes. Offering early interventions may protect their current and future cardiovascular health as motor development is an independent predictor of exercise capacity, physical activity and participation in daily living.

Mind the gap: Mapping variation between national and local clinical practice guidelines for acute paediatric asthma from the United Kingdom and the Netherlands.

BACKGROUND: Clinical practice guidelines (CPGs) aim to standardize clinical care. Increasingly, hospitals rely on locally produced guidelines alongside national guidance. This study examines variation between national and local CPGs, using the example of acute paediatric asthma guidance from the United Kingdom and the Netherlands. METHODS: Fifteen British and Dutch local CPGs were collected with the matching national guidance for the management of acute asthma in children under 18 years old. The drug sequences, routes and methods of administration recommended for patients with severe asthma and the tone of recommendation across both types of CPGs were schematically represented. Deviations from national guidance were measured. Variation in recommended doses of intravenous salbutamol was examined. CPG quality was assessed using the Appraisal of Guidelines for Research and Evaluation (AGREE) II. RESULTS: British and Dutch national CPGs differed in the recommended drug choices, sequences, routes and methods of administration for severe asthma. Dutch national guidance was more rigidly defined. Local British CPGs diverged from national guidance for 23% of their recommended interventions compared to 8% for Dutch local CPGs. Five British local guidelines and two Dutch local guidelines differed from national guidance for multiple treatment steps. Variation in second-line recommendations was greater than for first-line recommendations across local CPGs from both countries. Recommended starting doses for salbutamol infusions varied by more than tenfold. The quality of the sampled local CPGs was low across all AGREE II domains. CONCLUSIONS: Local CPGs for the management of severe acute paediatric asthma featured substantial variation and frequently diverged from national guidance. Although limited to one condition, this study suggests that unmeasured variation across local CPGs may contribute to variation of care more broadly, with possible effects on healthcare quality.

Longitudinal Motor-Developmental Outcomes in Infants with a Critical Congenital Heart Defect.

Infants with critical congenital heart defects (CCHDs) are at increased risk for neurodevelopmental delays. The early identification of motor delays is clinically relevant to prevent or reduce long-term consequences. The current study aims to describe the motor-developmental pathways of infants with a CCHD. Motor development was assessed in 215 infants and toddlers using the Dutch version of the Bayley-III. At 3 months (n = 165), 9 months (n = 188), and 18 months (n = 171) the motor composite scores were 97, 98, and 104, respectively. A motor composite score of ≤-2 SD was only seen in 2.4%, 0%, and 2.3%, respectively, with gross motor deficits being observed more often than fine motor deficits (12% vs. 0% at 18 months). Over 90% of infants who scored average at 9 months still did so at 18 months. The majority of infants with below-average gross motor scores (≤-1) at 9 months still had a below-average or delayed motor score (≤-2 SD) at 18 months. Abnormal gross motor scores (≤-2 SD) increased with age. Infants with single-ventricle physiology performed significantly (p ≤ 0.05) worse on both fine and gross motor skills at 9 and 18 months compared to infants with other CCHDs.

CeRebrUm and CardIac Protection with ALlopurinol in Neonates with Critical Congenital Heart Disease Requiring Cardiac Surgery with Cardiopulmonary Bypass (CRUCIAL): study protocol of a phase III, randomized, quadruple-blinded, placebo-controlled, Dutch multicenter trial.

BACKGROUND: Neonates with critical congenital heart disease (CCHD) undergoing cardiac surgery with cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) are at risk of brain injury that may result in adverse neurodevelopment. To date, no therapy is available to improve long-term neurodevelopmental outcomes of CCHD neonates. Allopurinol, a xanthine oxidase inhibitor, prevents the formation of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, thereby limiting cell damage during reperfusion and reoxygenation to the brain and heart. Animal and neonatal studies suggest that allopurinol reduces hypoxic-ischemic brain injury and is cardioprotective and safe. This trial aims to test the hypothesis that allopurinol administration in CCHD neonates will result in a 20% reduction in moderate to severe ischemic and hemorrhagic brain injury. METHODS: This is a phase III, randomized, quadruple-blinded, placebo-controlled, multicenter trial. Neonates with a prenatal or postnatal CCHD diagnosis requiring cardiac surgery with CPB in the first 4 weeks after birth are eligible to participate. Allopurinol or mannitol-placebo will be administered intravenously in 2 doses early postnatally in neonates diagnosed antenatally and 3 doses perioperatively of 20 mg/kg each in all neonates. The primary outcome is a composite endpoint of moderate/severe ischemic or hemorrhagic brain injury on early postoperative MRI, being too unstable for postoperative MRI, or mortality within 1 month following CPB. A total of 236 patients (n = 188 with prenatal diagnosis) is required to demonstrate a reduction of the primary outcome incidence by 20% in the prenatal group and by 9% in the postnatal group (power 80%; overall type 1 error controlled at 5%, two-sided), including 1 interim analysis at n = 118 (n = 94 with prenatal diagnosis) with the option to stop early for efficacy. Secondary outcomes include preoperative and postoperative brain injury severity, white matter injury volume (MRI), and cardiac function (echocardiography); postnatal and postoperative seizure activity (aEEG) and regional cerebral oxygen saturation (NIRS); neurodevelopment at 3 months (general movements); motor, cognitive, and language development and quality of life at 24 months; and safety and cost-effectiveness of allopurinol. DISCUSSION: This trial will investigate whether allopurinol administered directly after birth and around cardiac surgery reduces moderate/severe ischemic and hemorrhagic brain injury and improves cardiac function and neurodevelopmental outcome in CCHD neonates. TRIAL REGISTRATION: EudraCT 2017-004596-31. Registered on November 14, 2017. ClinicalTrials.gov NCT04217421. Registered on January 3, 2020.

CE Accreditation and Barriers to CE Marking of Pediatric Drug Calculators for Mobile Devices: Scoping Review and Qualitative Analysis.

BACKGROUND: Pediatric drug calculators (PDCs) intended for clinical use qualify as medical devices under the Medical Device Directive and the Medical Device Regulation. The extent to which they comply with European standards on quality and safety is unknown. OBJECTIVE: This study determines the number of PDCs available as mobile apps for use in the Netherlands that bear a CE mark, and explore the factors influencing the CE marking of such devices among app developers. METHODS: A scoping review of Google Play Store and Apple App Store was conducted to identify PDCs available for download in the Netherlands. CE accreditation of the sampled apps was determined by consulting the app landing pages on app stores, by screening the United Kingdom Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency's online registry of medical devices, and by surveying app developers. The barriers to CE accreditation were also explored through a survey of app developers. RESULTS: Of 632 screened apps, 74 were eligible, including 60 pediatric drug dosage calculators and 14 infusion rate calculators. One app was CE marked. Of the 20 (34%) respondents to the survey, 8 considered their apps not to be medical devices based on their intent of use or functionality. Three developers had not aimed to make their app available for use in Europe. Other barriers that may explain the limited CE accreditation of sampled PDC apps included poor awareness of European regulations among developers and a lack of restrictions when placing PDCs in app stores. CONCLUSIONS: The compliance of PDCs with European standards on medical devices is poor. This puts clinicians and their patients at risk of medical errors resulting from the largely unrestricted use of these apps.

Tidal Volume in Pediatric Ventilation: Do You Get What You See?

Mechanical ventilators are increasingly evolving into computer-driven devices. These technical advancements have impact on clinical decisions in pediatric intensive care units (PICUs). A good understanding of the design of mechanical ventilators can improve clinical care. Tidal volume (TV) is one of the corner stones of ventilation: multiple technical factors influence the TV and, thus, influence clinical decision making. Ventilator manufacturers make various design choices regarding the phase, site and conditions of TV measurement as well as algorithmic processing choices. Such choice may impact the measurement and subsequent display of TV. A software change of the TV measuring algorithm of the SERVO-i® (Getinge, Solna, Sweden) at the PICU of the University Medical Centre Utrecht was studied in a prospective cohort. It showed, as example, a clinically significant impact of 8% difference in reported TV. Design choices in both the hardware and software of mechanical ventilators can have a clinically relevant impact on the measurement of tidal volume. In our search for the optimal TV for lung-protective ventilation, such choices should be taken into account.

Effect of mechanical insufflation-exsufflation in children with neuromuscular weakness.

INTRODUCTION: Children with neuromuscular diseases develop cough impairment. Airway clearance techniques (ACTs) may help to prevent recurrent respiratory tract infections (RTIs). A commonly used ACT is mechanical insufflation-exsufflation (MI-E), but evidence for efficacy is limited. We hypothesize that MI-E has beneficial effect on RTI related hospital admission rate. METHODS: In this single-center retrospective study, we reviewed all children who used daily MI-E between 2005 till June 2019. Primary outcome studied was the number of RTIs requiring hospital admission. Patient satisfaction and burden experienced by MI-E use were explored by questionnaires using a Likert scale. The relative number of RTIs requiring admission and the number of admission days per eligible period before and after the introduction of MI-E were compared using the Friedman test and the Wilcoxon signed-rank test. RESULTS: Thirty-seven children were included. The median number of RTI related hospital admissions per 1000 eligible days after the introduction of MI-E was 0.9 (interquartile range [IQR] 0.0-3.1) compared to the 3 preceding years (median 3.7; IQR 1.4-5.9; P = .006). The median number of RTI related admission days per 1000 eligible days after the introduction of MI-E was significantly lower with a median of 2.7 (IQR 0.0-17.4) compared to the 3 preceding years (median 33.6; IQR 15.0-51.1; P = .001). Patient satisfaction was high with low burden, even in patients who discontinued treatment. CONCLUSION: A significantly lower number of RTIs requiring hospital admission and shorter admission duration after the introduction of MI-E was found, with high patient satisfaction and low burden.

PICU Admission Rates in Pediatric Cancer and Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplant Patients Receiving High-flow Nasal Cannula Oxygen Therapy on the General Ward.

The use of high-flow nasal cannula (HFNC) oxygen therapy is growing as an alternative to standard oxygen. However, its use in patients treated for malignancies, including hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) patients, is controversial. In this retrospective cohort study, we assessed outcomes of pediatric cancer and HSCT patients (including nonmalignant indications) with acute hypoxemic respiratory failure treated with HFNC on the ward. Among 39 patients included in the study, 53 episodes of HFNC treatment were analyzed. Of these episodes, 18 (34%) failed and patients required subsequently pediatric intensive care unit (PICU) admission. A significant median higher C reactive protein (175 [range, 72 to 308] vs. 80 [13.5 to 187.8] mg/dL; P=0.006) and higher Bedside Pediatric Early Warning Score (PEWS) 1 to 4 hours after initiation of HFNC (10.1±0.8 vs. 7.1±0.4; P=0.001) was found in the failure group compared with the nonfailure group. Among the 18 patients admitted to PICU, 14 (78%) needed intubation. Five (28%) patients died during their PICU admission. In summary, one third of the pediatric cancer and HSCT patients receiving HFNC on the ward eventually required PICU admission of which 78% were intubated. C reactive protein and BedsidePEWS 1 to 4 hours after initiation of HFNC were significantly associated with the need for PICU admission. However, no firm conclusion can be drawn whether HFNC treatment should actually be initiated in the ward in this vulnerable patient population. Larger, prospective studies are needed to evaluate the most appropriate treatment and setting (PICU or general ward) for these patients.

Outcome of Preterm Infants With Postnatal Cytomegalovirus Infection.

OBJECTIVES: To assess whether preterm infants with postnatal cytomegalovirus infection develop neurologic sequelae in early childhood. METHODS: Infants <32 weeks' gestation were prospectively screened for cytomegalovirus (CMV) at term-equivalent age. Neurodevelopment was compared between CMV-positive and CMV-negative infants by using the Griffiths Mental Development Scales (GMDS) at 16 months' corrected age (CA); the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development, Third Edition or the GMDS at 24 to 30 months' CA; and the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence, Third Edition and Movement Assessment Battery for Children, Second Edition at 6 years of age. At 6 years old, hearing was assessed in CMV-positive children. RESULTS: Neurodevelopment was assessed in 356 infants at 16 months' CA, of whom 49 (14%) were infected and 307 (86%) were noninfected. Infected infants performed significantly better on the GMDS locomotor scale. There were no differences at 24 to 30 months' CA on the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development, Third Edition or GMDS. At 6 years of age, infected children scored lower on the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence, Third Edition, but mean scores were within normal range, reaching significance only in verbal IQ (96 [SD 17] vs 103 [SD 15] points; P = .046). Multiple regression indicated no impact of CMV status but significant influence of maternal education and ethnicity on verbal IQ. No significant differences in motor development were found and none of the infected children developed sensorineural hearing loss. CONCLUSIONS: In this cohort study, postnatal cytomegalovirus infection in preterm children did not have an adverse effect on neurodevelopment within the first 6 years of life.

Congenital Cytomegalovirus Infection in the Absence of Maternal Cytomegalovirus-IgM Antibodies.

BACKGROUND: Congenital cytomegalovirus (cCMV) infections are the most prevalent intrauterine infections worldwide and are the result of maternal primary or non-primary infections. Early maternal primary infections are thought to carry the highest risk of fetal developmental abnormalities as seen by ultrasound; however, non-primary infections may prove equally detrimental. METHODS/RESULTS: This case series presents 5 cases with fetal abnormalities detected in the second and third trimester, in which cCMV infection was ruled out due to negative maternal CMV-IgM. DISCUSSION: This series highlights the possible pitfalls in serology interpretation and fetal diagnosis necessary for appropriate parental counseling. Once fetal abnormalities have been confirmed and cCMV is suspected, maternal CMV serostatus and fetal infection should be determined. Maternal CMV serology may be ambiguous; therefore, caution should be exercised when interpreting the results.

Neuro-imaging findings in infants with congenital cytomegalovirus infection: relation to trimester of infection.

BACKGROUND: Congenital cytomegalovirus (cCMV) infection early in pregnancy may result in major disabilities. Cerebral abnormalities detected using cranial ultrasound (cUS) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) have been related to neurological sequelae. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the additional value of MRI and assess the relationship between time of infection during pregnancy and outcome in infants with cCMV infection. METHODS AND STUDY DESIGN: Demographic and clinical data were collected in infants with cCMV infection (1992-2013). Trimester of infection, neuro-imaging results and outcome were reviewed. Cerebral abnormalities were categorized into none, mild (lenticulostriate vasculopathy, germinolytic cysts, high signal intensity on T2-weighted images) and severe (migrational disorder, ventriculomegaly, cerebellar hypoplasia). Results were statistically analysed. RESULTS: Thirty-six infants were eligible for analysis. cUS was performed in all and cranial MRI in 20 infants. Migrational disorders were only diagnosed using MRI (p < 0.01). In 17 infants trimester of infection was ascertained. Seven out of 10 infants infected during the first trimester had severe abnormalities on cUS (5 confirmed on MRI) and adverse sequelae; 3 had no/mild abnormalities on cUS/MRI and normal outcome. Two out of 3 infants infected during the second trimester with no/mild abnormalities on cUS/MRI had normal outcome; 1 with mild cUS and MRI abnormalities developed sensorineural hearing loss. Four infants infected during the third trimester with no/mild abnormalities on cUS/MRI had normal outcome. CONCLUSION: Infants with a first trimester cCMV infection are most at risk of severe cerebral abnormalities and neurological sequelae. MRI, and not cUS, enables an early diagnosis of migrational disorders, which can improve prediction of outcome.

Genotype distribution, viral load and clinical characteristics of infants with postnatal or congenital cytomegalovirus infection.

BACKGROUND: Congenital cytomegalovirus infection is a leading cause of long-term sequelae. Cytomegalovirus is also frequently transmitted to preterm infants postnatally, but these infections are mostly asymptomatic. A correlation between cytomegalovirus genotypes and clinical manifestations has been reported previously in infants with congenital infection, but not in preterm infants with postnatal infection. OBJECTIVES: The main objective of this study was to investigate cytomegalovirus genotype distribution in postnatal and congenital cytomegalovirus infection and its association with disease severity. METHODS: Infants admitted to the neonatal intensive care unit of the University Medical Center Utrecht, The Netherlands between 2003-2010 and diagnosed with postnatal or congenital cytomegalovirus infection were included. Classification of cytomegalovirus isolates in genotypes was performed upon amplification and sequencing of the cytomegalovirus UL55 (gB) and UL144 genes. Clinical data, cerebral abnormalities, neurodevelopmental outcome and viral load were studied in relation to genotype distribution. RESULTS: Genotyping results were obtained from 58 preterm infants with postnatal cytomegalovirus infection and 13 infants with congenital cytomegalovirus infection. Postnatal disease was mild in all preterm infants and all had favourable outcome. Infants with congenital infection were significantly more severely affected than infants with postnatal infection. Seventy-seven percent of these infants were symptomatic at birth, 2/13 died and 3/13 developed long-term sequelae (median follow-up 6 (range 2-8) years). The distribution of cytomegalovirus genotypes was comparable for postnatal and congenital infection. UL55 genotype 1 and UL144 genotype 3 were predominant genotypes in both groups. CONCLUSIONS: Distribution of UL55 and UL144 genotypes was similar in asymptomatic postnatal and severe congenital CMV infection suggesting that other factors rather than cytomegalovirus UL55 and UL144 genotype are responsible for the development of severe disease.

Predictors of severity for postnatal cytomegalovirus infection in preterm infants and implications for treatment.

Postnatal cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection is common in neonates and is mostly acquired through infected breast milk from seropositive mothers. In this review, risk factors of postnatal CMV transmission and predictors of severity, preventive measures and treatment of symptomatic postnatal CMV infection in preterm infants are discussed. Several viral, transmission route and host factors have been associated with a higher risk of postnatal CMV transmission from mother to child. Severity predictors of symptomatic postnatal CMV infection may include extreme prematurity (gestational age <26 weeks), timing of postnatal infection as well as comorbidities. Further research in postnatally infected preterm infants at risk for severe symptoms is essential with respect to preventive measures involving the infected breast milk and antiviral treatment.